8/1/25: Nuuk's Greenland National Museum and Archives

 

As I mentioned in the previous post, Steven and I spent a good chunk of August 1st at Nuuk's captivating Greenland National Museum and Archives, which was based in a series of former warehouses from 1936. I hope you will agree that my devoting an entire post to the museum is worth it.

A sign said that the sculpture out front was designed by Naja Rosing-Asvid and was inspired by "the legend of human origin," but I don't know what that meant.

I found it quite unusual that the museum didn't present its information on Greenland's history, starting from the oldest exhibits and the first Inuit. When I grew up in Canada during the 1960s and 1970s, it was acceptable to use the word 'Eskimo' when speaking about our northern neighbors. For many years, however, it has been 'right' or proper to use the word 'Inuit' as Indigenous people in both Canada and Greenland are sensitive about being called an Eskimo and find it insulting. I didn't know until very recently that the singular form of Inuit is Inuk.

The museum began with the Colonial Period, focusing on lifestyle and class distinctions. With the emergence of Christianity in 1721 in Greenland and the colonization of its west coast fifty years later, significant ruptures and lifestyle changes occurred in how the Inuit were treated. They were settled in 'colonies' and trading stations. Christianity, led by the Danish-Norwegian missionary Hans Egede, gradually marginalized the Inuit's perceptions of life and their spiritual beliefs.

The country remained a colony and was kept isolated from the surrounding world until 1953. During the long colonizing period, social and ethnic distinctions were emphasized. The Danish colonizers, described by the museum as a "master race," led and administered as an upper class. At the same time, the Greenlanders were kept subservient in the sealing industry, which guaranteed raw materials for the export monopoly trade. Most 'mixed race' residents became members of the middle class, working in missionary activities or for the KGH, the Royal Greenland Trading Department. It was a Danish state enterprise charged with administering the realm's settlements and trade in Greenland. Though the introduction of new technology required knowledge from the world beyond Greenland, its people could only train as midwives, catechists, carpenters, and similar positions. 

Clothing as markers: Traditional clothes worn by some Inuit signaled their spiritual and religious life. With the changes in society brought on by colonization, there were adaptations in how new clothes were made for those who could afford them. New contacts with foreigners resulted in the opportunity to buy cotton cloth, sewing tools, and even purchase ready-made clothing. However, the latter wasn't always suitable for the climate in Greenland. 

I learned that most Greenlandic towns now have several sewing establishments, inspired by both traditional and modern patterns, adapted to the cold climate. Not all Inuit can afford clothing made from sealskins, however.

External influences changed the original function of skin belts and bags. New demands and needs led to the creation of new objects, which were still made with old techniques and materials. 

Food: Before European food was introduced to the Greenlanders, the Inuit were self-sufficient. Plants, berries, and seaweed were included in their vitamin-rich diet, which was adapted to the cold climate and their hunting life. The people began to enjoy coffee, tea, barley, and sugar starting with the Europeans' arrival in the 18th century. Consumer goods were not purchased until the 19th century in connection with the trading of fox and seal skins. 

As Greenland's population increased, quotas were established for hunted animals like reindeer, salmon, and particular whale species. Though frozen, salted, preserved, and smoked meat and fish are still eaten in most Greenlandic homes, whale skin or mattak, a delicacy for many, has become rare. Sadly, cheap and nutrient-poor fast food has become part of the Inuit's daily diet, leading to a decline in health.

During the 14th-century Thule Inuit culture, dolls were used as amulets and toys, and typically featured a flat face, short legs, and no arms. It was only as outside influences grew that they became more colorful. Some were given traditional clothing, while others had clothes painted on. 

Colonial trade and economy: The basis for Greenland being a colony from 1721 onward was the trading of seals and their by-products, as seal hunting was the primary occupation for most of the people. Once Greenland's trade monopoly was handed over from private companies to KGH, they established a price system where all sale and purchase prices were the same throughout the country. The prices and availability of European goods were managed to facilitate the Greenlandic trade with targeted export markets in Europe.

Until the 1830s, trade goods were divided into four categories that also determined who could buy them, such as by the Inuit or the Danes in Greenland. Later, most trade goods became available to everyone. 

The KGH also administered various kinds of social relief, such as widow pensions and child support. Later, reward programs for thrifty hunters became part of the colonial economy. These measures helped to counteract poverty and encouraged people to secure a stable economy by hunting and trading.

Kayaks were used for transport, hunting, and fishing. In the ice-free areas of the southwest coast, they were designed for use in open water year-round. In West Greenland, kayaks and umiaks, the boats used by women and children, were brought inland to the summer settlements. In the north and the east, kayaks were brought on land during the winter. Kayaks were considered such an integral part of a man's life that sometimes hunters were buried with their kayak.

Domestic utensils: The Inuit way of life, characterized by their nomadic lifestyle and movement between summer and winter settlements, required that containers and inventory also be moved. Nature was used for storage, with meat and blubber placed in meat graves or caches near the hunting ground or settlement. Soapstone was used for lamps and pots as it quickly absorbed heat and slowly released it.

Containers for water, whale oil, and urine (which was gathered in buckets and used for tanning sealskins and washing hair!), along with dishes and tool boxes, were made from driftwood and assembled with rivets. Wooden buckets were made using a copper technique learned by the Inuit from Alaska. Some cups made from bamboo were found in Ammassalik, an island off eastern Greenland, having come in on drifting ocean currents. Sealskin bags were used to collect and store berries, seaweed, mussels, and moss, which were also used to collect embers for making fires or as toilet paper.

This 36-ft-long umiaq was left in North Greenland in the last part of the 1400s. Made from driftwood, it was lashed with sealskin straps and also covered with sealskin. Its flat keel is a feature that originated in Alaska. In the stern was a piece of oak which must have come from the Norsemen in South Greenland. The small hole in the front seat indicates there was room for a mast. The many holes on the edge of one of the seats showed it was initially a sleigh runner. 

During a journey, the umiaks, used all over Greenland, were paddled by women and could hold the entire settlement, including skins, tents, dogs, sleighs, lamps, and children. Men followed in their kayaks.

The sealskin bench was so soft!

The 'must-see' item in the museum was the Qilakitsoq mummies' grave chamber, which showed the remains of people buried around 1475 and preserved for 550 years, walled up in a dry cave. Six women and two boys spanning three generations with close familial ties were discovered. Though the cause(s) of death haven't been established, they likely died at the same time in the fall, shortly before they arrived outside their winter settlement at Qilakitsoq in West Greenland.

Wrapped in furs and fully dressed, they were carefully prepared for a long journey to the land of the dead according to old rules that were handed down. They were clothed in extra furs and costumes for a safe trip to their afterlife. The five oldest women had almost the same facial tattoos, indicating both kinship and social status. As the youngest at just 20, had no tattoos, she was likely not married or a mother. Tattoos were common among Inuit women for thousands of years, until the beginning of European missionary work. That was presumably because they associated tattoos with pagan faiths and therefore declared them sinful. On and among the bodies were amulets, which the Inuit used to get strength and for protection against evil forces. 

It was extraordinary to see how well preserved the mummies were, and especially how distinct some of their features were!

Chin tattoos were usually the first ones a young Inuit woman would receive, typically as a sign of her maturity, depending on the area, with the average age being between 16 and 20. Specific designs signaled to a community that when a woman married, she now belonged to this new family. Many of these designs apparently resembled the patterns on the Qilakitsoq mummies, but I wasn't able to detect any tattoos. 

These types of finger tattoos correlate directly to Sassuma arnaa, or Mother of the Sea, who, according to myth, had her fingers cut off by her father. To keep her happy and maintain prosperity in hunts, women tattooed themselves in her honor. I read that Greenlandic women of today have finger tattoos because they relate to her tale.

Spirit and soul: The drum song was used for everything from entertainment to resolving serious interpersonal arguments between individuals or groups. In the song duel, songs are composed and delivered in turns until one of the parties surrenders by running out of arguments. The decision may also be made based on scorn or laughter from the audience. The drum is now considered to be a potent symbol of conflict resolution by the Inuit. Their songs, melodies, dances, and texts are often accompanied by drums and drum rhythms. 

Photo courtesy of TripAdvisor:

Inua: The Inuit believed that everything in nature was animated by an inua, meaning its owner. Things, people, and animals therefore have an inherent owner or a soul, in other words. The inua is the "light, the power, the aura, and the soul of nature."

Amulets: The Inuit used amulets to obtain strength and protection from evil forces and spirits. They provided safety. Nearly everything could be used as an amulet - it just had to be effective in a particular situation. Amulets were well looked after and hidden because they were secret and very personal.

Grave goods: When the Inuit arrived in Greenland, they buried their dead at sea. That changed around 1400 when they started to bury their loved ones on land in caverns or stone-built graves. The dead were appropriately dressed with supplies, such as tools from daily life, and adornments for the afterlife, either in a side chamber or the main chamber. A bucket, a scoop, and needlework supplies were all excavated from a woman's grave in Kangerlussuaq in East Greenland. 

In an adjoining building that was also part of the museum, there were exhibits on transportation methods used by the Inuit. We weren't overly interested in the extensive collection of boats and other items. Still, we learned that wooden boats began to replace sealskin ones before 1920, followed by canvas boats, and finally, motorboats became commonplace around 1940. 

Photo courtesy of TripAdvisor:

The museum's oldest kayak was from the Nuuk area, where Dutch whalers brought it to the Netherlands in the 17th century. As people became more settled in the 1600s, regional types of kayaks that adapted to local customs came into existence. While we might think of kayaks for sport or transport, the Inuit built kayaks solely for hunting.

This umiak was in use until 1966 in Aassiaat, where Steven and I stayed for several days after leaving the ferry.

 The dog sleds dated to 1902. 

The museum's next exhibit returned to an earlier period in the country's history, the Norse Greenlanders who arrived in 1261 under the aegis of the Norwegian king. The purpose of the Western Settlement and the Eastern Settlement was to ensure that the traffic of the merchant ships between Norway and Greenland was maintained, at least for a period of time. However, as connections with the surrounding world dwindled during the late Middle Ages, both settlements were depopulated by the late 1400s. With population numbers likely never rising above 2,000 to 2,500, an economy based on animal husbandry, sealing, reindeer hunting, and hunting journeys to the north required the cooperation of many workers. Even a small migration likely had fatal consequences. 

However, the reasons why the Norse settlements disappeared have been discussed since Hans Egede colonized Greenland in 1721. As I wrote in the first post on Greenland, two conditions are now thought to be the cause of the settlements' demise: changing financial and political conditions in Scandinavia, which meant a declining interest in luxury goods obtained from Greenland, and climate change set in during the 1300s, making farming considerably more difficult.

Unfortunately, our eyes began to glaze over by the time we reached the museum's last building and briefly looked at the exhibits about the Paleo-Inuit culture. There was a reproduction of a tent exterior, along with hunting equipment, including stone tools and reconstructed weapons. We would have liked to explore these more if they had been at the beginning, not the end, of the museum. Another reason we also couldn't explore the Recent Times exhibits in the museum was that we had many more things to explore in Nuuk that afternoon before our ferry left. 

I'd like to commend the staff at the Greenland National Museum and Archives for their honest and unvarnished treatment of how their country's Inuit were treated by the Danish colonizers. I wonder if we were to revisit Copenhagen, we'd find a similarly open discussion at their national history museum.

Photo courtesy of TripAdvisor:

Next post: Meandering by ferry up more of Greenland's West coast.

Posted on October 9th, 2025, on another magical fall day in Denver, where the sun shone, there was no deluge, and the temperature was warm! Wherever you are, make the best of it, and take care of yourself and your loved ones. 

8/1/25: Nuuk's Capital Sights!

Steven was immensely relieved that there was no need for him to get up early the morning that our Sarfaq Ittuk ferry arrived in Nuuk, the capital of Greenland, as the ferry was in port for more than 12 hours. That's compared to less than an hour at the previous stops at small settlements up the west coast. Not only was the foggy, chilly weather no inducement to rush off and explore Nuuk quite yet, but Steven and I were due to return to Nuuk for a couple of nights at the end of our trip.

Once off the ferry, Steven and I couldn't help but notice Statsraad Lehmkuhl, the large Norwegian tall ship that was moored next to us. The One Ocean Expedition 2025-2026 was on a one-year journey, traveling to three continents, 24 ports, and covering 30,000 nautical miles, including a historic transit through the Northwest Passage. Coinciding with the UN Ocean Decade, its goal was ocean research, education, sail training, and diplomacy. Several legs of the voyage were open to the public, even for those with no sailing experience required! Doesn't their trip sound like the dream of a lifetime for some people?

With no taxis or public transportation in sight, we began the fairly long walk into Nuuk, where more than 80% of the 20,000 population were of Inuit descent. The city was the fastest-growing region in the country, with more than a third of the country's population. Within just a few minutes' walk of the port, we saw evidence of the construction boom taking place in the capital.

Nuuk, the world's most northerly capital city, is located approximately 155 miles south of the Arctic Circle. Meaning 'tip' in Greenlandic, it is so named because of its location on a rocky promontory at the world's second-largest fjord system. Nuuk Fjord stretches approximately 100 miles inland from the Labrador Sea, an arm of the North Atlantic, to the ice sheet. There is only one other tiny settlement in the entire fjord system, Kapisillit, which is only accessible by boat or helicopter.

A covered bus stop near some higher-rise buildings, the first we'd seen since arriving in Greenland about a week earlier: 

There are no roads in or out of Nuuk - a 12-minute drive from the city center would literally bring you to the end of the road! Everything in Nuuk must arrive by boat or plane, unless it was hunted or caught in the fjord. 

Few of the graves were marked with any identifying features, except for simple white wooden crosses. The graves were mounded because

the ground is often too frozen for digging.

I was pleasantly surprised by some of the avant-garde architecture

A grocery store in the center of Nuuk had an excellent selection of baked goodies, so we bought some to enjoy while we walked around.

I have 'a thing' for tote bags, but I couldn't justify spending 200 DKK, or $30, on this one that sported part of the country's flag on it. 

The city center was small and had one pedestrianized street, Imaneq, with several nearby attractions.

After reading about Dooit Design, Greenland's only glass workshop, which was established a dozen years ago, I was curious to see the shop, just a few feet from where Steven sat. 

After the raw glass arrives in hand-rolled sheets from the US, each piece is cut out by hand and fired in the glass kilns at around 800 degrees for between 20 and 24 hours by the mother-daughter owners. They use hydropower, a 'green' electricity, to create a flat plate of fused glass. If it needs to be shaped into bowls or dishes, it returns to the kiln at a slightly lower temperature for the same amount of time again. 

In between other customers, I spoke at some length with Christa, one of the shop's employees. When she noticed that I was immediately drawn to the beautiful glass boat (in the second picture), a much smaller version of another in the shop, she explained that it was an umiak, a boat used exclusively by women and children when they moved from one destination to another. The men, Christa explained, traveled by kayak. Notice the buns the women are wearing. Christa said the women "feel extra special and beautiful when they put their hair up like that."

I bought a couple of small glass items that I liked, but didn't love. But they were easy to wrap up and would be safe in my bag. Steven persuaded me that the umiak was too impractical to take with us, too cumbersome, and so on - all of which were true, at this stage of our trip. Plus, after all, we could return to Dooit Design and buy something bigger on our return to Nuuk if I still had my heart set on it. 

Further down the mall was a large sculpture of playful seals. It was one of the nineteen pieces that comprised the Nuuk Art Walk.

The modern Katuaq Cultural Centre was inspired by the Northern Lights and the surrounding landscape. Standing in the middle of cosmopolitan Nuuk, savoring an espresso or latte, with a good cell phone signal and WiFi, it was easy to forget how secluded we were!

Walking to Old Nuuk and the picturesque Colonial Harbor, we came across the Inussuk sculpture, created by artist Niels Motfeldt to commemorate the start of Greenland's self-governance on June 21, 2009. 

Nuuk History: The oldest part of Nuuk overlooks the Nuuk Fjord. It was here that Hans Egede established the Godthåb colonial settlement in 1728, after arriving from Norway with three ships, 45 other colonists, and some portable houses. Norway was then part of the Kingdom of Denmark. After many difficult years dealing with scurvy, smallpox, and the resistance of the nomadic Inuit hunters, who used the area as a seasonal settlement and were reluctant to convert to Christianity, Egede returned to Denmark. However, his elder sons stayed and continued his work. After Moravian missionaries arrived in 1733 and successfully converted an influential Inuit shaman to Christianity, they established a string of missions along the west coast that were run from Nuuk.

For centuries, Nuuk was regarded as merely another whaling and trading settlement. Though it became Greenland's capital in 1950, it wasn't until 1979 that it officially changed its name back to the Inuit Nuuk from the Danish Godthåb. With the Danes interested in exploiting both fishing and mining opportunities in the area, Danish investment in Nuuk increased significantly in the 1950s. The Danes were concerned about the shortage of labor for the mining and fish-processing factories, as the Inuit were in danger of dying from malnutrition due to seals becoming increasingly challenging to hunt. The Danish solution was to resettle hunters in town, providing them with modern housing, access to healthcare, and education for themselves and their families. 

The 'solution' sounded eerily akin to the reservations established by the American government for Indigenous Americans. No longer were the Inuit a nomadic people. The housing that was built was designed by and for Danes, not Inuit, with nowhere to store fishing equipment, outdoor clothing, or even the day's catch. Men whose lives had previously been determined by their needs, the seasons, and the weather, were now required to show up at specific times for factory shifts. Many men and their families had never used money before.

We spent a considerable amount of time in a former warehouse from 1936 that had been converted into the Greenland National Museum and Archives. However, I'll save that for a separate post, as it was not only the country's first museum, but also still the largest and most impressive one in Greenland.

As we strolled through the quiet streets of the Colonial Harbor and then along the quay, it was easy to imagine life a hundred years ago, looking out to sea, trying to spot the first supply ship of the summer, or one's husband or brother returning in their kayaks.

Near the shore was a monument dedicated to Arnarulunnguaq, a Greenlandic Inuit woman who was a crucial member of the Fifth Thule Expedition, led by Knud Rasmussen, from 1921 to 1924. The expedition traveled over 11,000 miles by dog sled across the Arctic regions of Greenland and Alaska. She contributed significantly to the expedition's success by assisting with cooking, clothing, collecting specimens, and making drawings of Inuit women's tattoos. A plaque said, "Without you, the journey will not end."

We decided to wait on our return to Nuuk to treat ourselves to a walk along the Nuuk Boardwalk. 

I had hoped to see whalebones and driftwood outside the Kayak Clubhouse, but I didn't spot any. They would be used to build and repair traditional kayaks

Opposite the entrance to the National Museum was Kittat Economusée, described as a traditional Greenlandic costume maker. A group of dedicated women works on the manufacture and restoration of costumes, first preparing the skins before creating an ornate, intricately decorated piece. 

A sign in the workshop described how the first beads in Greenland were thin and round, made of soapstone. Later, bone, teeth, wood, and fish vertebrae were used to make beads. Glass beads arrived in Greenland during the 17th century, when they were bartered for teeth, skins, and tusks with whalers. Small beads were introduced after 1721, when women began using them as decorative elements on their clothing made from animal skins. 

I read that people can come in twice a week to prepare their sealskins in an adjoining room, and that the women make costumes to rent.

While Steven waited out in the sun, I toured the tiny workshop by myself. Because of its size and the fact that the women spoke very limited English, it was an unsatisfying experience, with my gaining little knowledge. I saw what I thought were patterns on one wall, but little other evidence of their handiwork.

Nearby were racks to hang animal skins to dry.

After the generally miserable weather throughout our two weeks exploring most of Iceland, being able to sit in the sun and have lunch in Nuuk's Colonial Harbor was glorious!

At the far end of the quay was the Nuuk Local Museum, housed in an old colonial boatyard building below. Once again, we decided to postpone our visit until our return. 

Summertime in Nuuk!

Just a stone's throw from the bathing beauties was the Goddess of the Sea, also known as the Mother of the Sea and Sassuma Arnaa in Greenlandic. According to Inuit mythology, when an Inuit breaks a taboo in society, the Mother of the Sea’s hair gets filthy. She entangles the animals, preventing the hunters from catching any food. The shaman must then travel over the horizon to the bottom of the ocean to clean her hair and to release the animals. He must speak with her to determine which taboos were broken and convey these lessons back to society.

We could see that in this statue, she was surrounded by all the creatures that the Inuit hunted to survive: the walrus, seal, fish, and polar bear, plus the shaman combing those beings out of her hair. The statue reminded us of the smaller and less impressive Little Mermaid in Copenhagen.

At the opposite end of the Colonial Harbor was Nuuk's Church of Our Saviour. It was built in 1849, but its clock tower and steeple were added in 1884. The wooden Lutheran church was only awarded cathedral status one hundred years later, in 1994. Like other churches we'd tried to enter in southern Greenland, it was also closed. I'd have liked to admire its white wooden paneling, the candles at the end of each pew, and the chandeliers hanging over the aisle, interspersed with two votive ships. I am sure that the latter must have been the focus of many anxious seamen's families over the years. 

Views behind the church:

On the approach to the church was a monument dedicated to Jonathan Petersen (1881–1961), a Greenlandic composer, poet, and cultural figure. He composed the music for Greenland's national anthem, Nunarput utoqqarsuanngoravit. 

High above the church beside the harbor stood another monument, honoring Hans Egede, dressed as a Lutheran preacher, who established the Godthåb colonial settlement.

We had panoramic views across the fjord, to the islands and peninsula beyond, as well as of the charming old harbor community. 

Judging by what I could see of the flag, this was the Norwegian embassy.

I found the number of monuments in Greenland to be staggering, particularly considering its small population. This one in Nuuk's Colonial Harbor honored Prince Frederik IX, later King Frederik IX of Denmark, from 1947 to 1972.

I had to use Google Lens to learn that this building was the Grønlands Seminarium, also known as Ilinniarfissuaq, which is Greenlandic for "the great place of learning." The oldest educational institution in Greenland, established initially to train teachers and catechists, was founded in 1845. Considered an important symbol of Nuuk, it is featured on the city's flag and coat of arms. 

Wow, lucky us, yet another monument, not five minutes away from the prince's!

The fellow walking up the street was Vadims, a Latvian we'd first encountered a few days earlier in Qaqortok while we were all searching for the Man and Stone sculptures. After also seeing him on the ferry, we kept running into him again here in Nuuk, as there are only so many things to see and do in the capital city!

As we headed back to the center of Nuuk, we viewed a sculpture of Kaassassuk, a character from Greenlandic mythology, created by Greenlandic artist Simon Kristoffersen. The figure was from a legend about a weak, bullied orphan who gains incredible strength after wrestling with a spirit.

Views of the Katuaq Cultural Center that we'd passed earlier:

Greenland's only movie theater was located in the center, although films are occasionally shown in one other town! 

Next to the glass shop I'd liked so much earlier was Qiviut, a local store selling soft knitwear made of the downy-soft underwool from the Arctic musk ox, described as being eight times warmer than wool and extraordinarily lightweight. As an avid knitter, I made a beeline for its exquisite yarns, but the prices were eye-watering!

In addition to its Art Walk, Nuuk boasts a noteworthy collection of murals in the city center.

On our way back to the ferry via a local artists' cooperative, I was again struck by some intriguing architectural gems.

Located in Nuuk's industrial area, the Ajagaq Workshop included 20 workshops spread over two floors. We'd hoped to look at and possibly buy some tupilaks, the ancestors' spirits that were invoked for protection from, or to cause injury to one's energy. Images of tupilaks adorned the building's exterior. 

Though the building was still open, no work was being done. 

The plaque indicated the building was the American consulate. I can't imagine it was still in use, given its small size, and considering the current president's fondness for large things!

After a long day spent discovering some of Nuuk's most enjoyable sights and narrowing down what we wanted to see more of on our return in ten days, Steven and I were happy to return to the ferry for two more nights up Greenland's west coast.

Next post: Nuuk's Greenland National Museum and Archives.

Posted on October 6th, 2025, from our home in Denver, where I hope you and your loved ones are well.